By Graham Avery
Date: 9/1/2026
Date: 9/1/2026
Radiocarbon dating (C-14)
60,000/50,000 to 1,950 BP (The dating method indicated an age range)
As a First Nations person from NSW, I recognise that radiocarbon dating is crucial for determining the age of Papuan and Aboriginal cultural heritage sites across the Sahul region. This process helps us understand when our Papuan-Aboriginal ancestors arrived in Sahul from Sunda. By combining radiocarbon dating with molecular clock analysis of Papuan-Aboriginal DNA, we can estimate that they arrived in Sahul around 60,000 to 50,000 years ago. Sixty to fifty thousand years is still an immense span of time, especially for Sahul—the homeland of marsupials, monotremes, emus, lace monitors, and crocodiles—set within landscapes dominated by eucalyptus and acacia vegetation in southern Sahul and tropical rainforests in northern Sahul near the equator.
I have learned about radiocarbon dating from reading many scientific publications on Sahulian cultural heritage sites. It is fascinating to see how archaeologists collect soil or charcoal samples from different strata and send them to a scientific laboratory for analysis. They then send the samples to an independent university to double-check the carbon dating results, ensuring accuracy and ruling out contamination. Dating radiocarbon is not a simple job—it requires excavating a site, documenting each layer, marking artefacts, and drawing detailed cross-sections, including consultation with Aboriginal and Papuan communities before excavation or research begins. The final stage involves writing a scientific publication to present their methodology, results, and discussion, and sometimes including information on consultation with Aboriginal and Papuan communities. Most of this consultation appears in cultural heritage assessment reports rather than in scientific publications.
In 2021, one of the most fascinating developments in radiocarbon dating was research funded by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) in Lucas Heights, New South Wales. The rock art project was led by Professor Andy Gleadow from the University of Melbourne. The study dated a remarkable charcoal drawing of a kangaroo in the Kimberley region, estimated to be around 17,300 years old. This work was carried out in collaboration with the Balanggarra Traditional Owners in north-east Kimberley. Archaeologists collected material from behind a mud wasp nest located on or beneath the kangaroo drawing and performed radiocarbon dating on the nest. This story is one of my favorite scientific publications because it highlights the importance of radiocarbon-14 in dating Sahulian rock art sites. Well done to the Balanggarra mob and Rock Art Australia for their fabulous work. For more information, please check out the sources in bibliography below or the Scientific Publications.
What is radiocarbon?
Radiocarbon is a simplified term often used in general discussions. For scientists and archaeologists, the precise term refers to radioactive carbon-14 (C-14), an isotope of carbon on the periodic table. Carbon also exists in other stable forms, such as carbon-12 (C-12), which is the most common isotope.
Why do we use radiocarbon?
Scientists and archaeologists use radiocarbon dating to determine the age of cultural heritage sites created by Sahulian descendants. This helps us understand how long our ancestors lived in specific places such as sandstone or limestone shelters, shell middens, burials, rock art sites, and campsites. These sites must contain radiocarbon-14 in organic materials like charcoal, ash, bones, seeds, string, hair fibres, and soil—provided they are free from contamination.
Why do we use radiocarbon dating in timelines?
Radiocarbon-14 dating was invented in 1949 by Willard Libby. When scientists or archaeologists determine the age of a cultural heritage site or archaeological layer, they use the year 1950 as the starting point for the term “Before Present” (BP) in timelines. For example, 60,000 BP means 60,000 years before 1950, or roughly 60,000 years ago.
As a First Nations person from NSW, I recognise that radiocarbon dating is crucial for determining the age of Papuan and Aboriginal cultural heritage sites across the Sahul region. This process helps us understand when our Papuan-Aboriginal ancestors arrived in Sahul from Sunda. By combining radiocarbon dating with molecular clock analysis of Papuan-Aboriginal DNA, we can estimate that they arrived in Sahul around 60,000 to 50,000 years ago. Sixty to fifty thousand years is still an immense span of time, especially for Sahul—the homeland of marsupials, monotremes, emus, lace monitors, and crocodiles—set within landscapes dominated by eucalyptus and acacia vegetation in southern Sahul and tropical rainforests in northern Sahul near the equator.
I have learned about radiocarbon dating from reading many scientific publications on Sahulian cultural heritage sites. It is fascinating to see how archaeologists collect soil or charcoal samples from different strata and send them to a scientific laboratory for analysis. They then send the samples to an independent university to double-check the carbon dating results, ensuring accuracy and ruling out contamination. Dating radiocarbon is not a simple job—it requires excavating a site, documenting each layer, marking artefacts, and drawing detailed cross-sections, including consultation with Aboriginal and Papuan communities before excavation or research begins. The final stage involves writing a scientific publication to present their methodology, results, and discussion, and sometimes including information on consultation with Aboriginal and Papuan communities. Most of this consultation appears in cultural heritage assessment reports rather than in scientific publications.
In 2021, one of the most fascinating developments in radiocarbon dating was research funded by the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) in Lucas Heights, New South Wales. The rock art project was led by Professor Andy Gleadow from the University of Melbourne. The study dated a remarkable charcoal drawing of a kangaroo in the Kimberley region, estimated to be around 17,300 years old. This work was carried out in collaboration with the Balanggarra Traditional Owners in north-east Kimberley. Archaeologists collected material from behind a mud wasp nest located on or beneath the kangaroo drawing and performed radiocarbon dating on the nest. This story is one of my favorite scientific publications because it highlights the importance of radiocarbon-14 in dating Sahulian rock art sites. Well done to the Balanggarra mob and Rock Art Australia for their fabulous work. For more information, please check out the sources in bibliography below or the Scientific Publications.
What is radiocarbon?
Radiocarbon is a simplified term often used in general discussions. For scientists and archaeologists, the precise term refers to radioactive carbon-14 (C-14), an isotope of carbon on the periodic table. Carbon also exists in other stable forms, such as carbon-12 (C-12), which is the most common isotope.
Why do we use radiocarbon?
Scientists and archaeologists use radiocarbon dating to determine the age of cultural heritage sites created by Sahulian descendants. This helps us understand how long our ancestors lived in specific places such as sandstone or limestone shelters, shell middens, burials, rock art sites, and campsites. These sites must contain radiocarbon-14 in organic materials like charcoal, ash, bones, seeds, string, hair fibres, and soil—provided they are free from contamination.
Why do we use radiocarbon dating in timelines?
Radiocarbon-14 dating was invented in 1949 by Willard Libby. When scientists or archaeologists determine the age of a cultural heritage site or archaeological layer, they use the year 1950 as the starting point for the term “Before Present” (BP) in timelines. For example, 60,000 BP means 60,000 years before 1950, or roughly 60,000 years ago.
Luminescence dating (OSL)
500,000 to 100 BP or less (The dating method indicated an age range)
I first learned about luminescence dating when I read Human Occupation of Northern Australia by 65,000 Years Ago by Chris Clarkson, Zenobia Jacobs, and colleagues, published in 2017. What really fascinates me about this method is how Clarkson and his team applied it at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia near Kakadu National Park, on the land of the Mirarr People of the Gunwinyguan language group. To collect sand grains without exposing them to light, they used metal cylinders, driving them into the sediment to take samples, which were then sealed and sent to the lab for testing. This process allowed them to use optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to determine when the grains were last exposed to sunlight. The results show that the earliest occupation at Madjedbebe dates to around 65,000 to 53,000 years ago, which aligns with molecular clock estimates for Papuan–Aboriginal DNA tracing back about 60,000 years.
Check out the Everick's Youtube videos on OSL dating method:
I first learned about luminescence dating when I read Human Occupation of Northern Australia by 65,000 Years Ago by Chris Clarkson, Zenobia Jacobs, and colleagues, published in 2017. What really fascinates me about this method is how Clarkson and his team applied it at Madjedbebe, a rock shelter in northern Australia near Kakadu National Park, on the land of the Mirarr People of the Gunwinyguan language group. To collect sand grains without exposing them to light, they used metal cylinders, driving them into the sediment to take samples, which were then sealed and sent to the lab for testing. This process allowed them to use optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to determine when the grains were last exposed to sunlight. The results show that the earliest occupation at Madjedbebe dates to around 65,000 to 53,000 years ago, which aligns with molecular clock estimates for Papuan–Aboriginal DNA tracing back about 60,000 years.
Check out the Everick's Youtube videos on OSL dating method:
- What is OSL? - 1 Minute Heritage > https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74WYnPOc_Zg
- Dating the rock art with OSL method from wasp nests > https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9roOjjvyRI
Uranium dating (²³⁸U and ²³⁵U)
4.5 billion years ago to less than 2 million years ago (age range indicated by dating methods)
Uranium–Lead Dating (U-Pb)
The uranium–lead dating method provides precise and accurate ages in geology because it measures the ratio of uranium isotopes (^238U and ^235U) to their lead decay products. This method is commonly used to date rocks and minerals and is particularly useful for determining ages in the range of millions to billions of years.
U-Series Dating
In the 1999 publication Australia’s Oldest Human Remains: Age of the Lake Mungo 3 Skeleton, Mungo Man (LM3) was dated using uranium-series methods, which produced ages ranging from about 81,000 to 21,000 years. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of the surrounding sediments yielded a similarly broad range of approximately 61,000 to 2,000 years.
U-series dating is not always accurate for human burial sites because bones can absorb uranium after burial, leading to unreliable results. For this reason, radiocarbon dating is generally considered more reliable than U-series dating for such contexts. However, experts also tested the age of Kiacatoo Man using U-series in 2011 from the Lachlan River on Wiradjuri Country, on behalf of the Wiradjuri people. It is interesting to note that U-series dating methods continue to be used. Kiacatoo Man was buried between approximately 29,400 and 27,000 years ago, based on combined U-series and OSL dating results.
Uranium–Lead Dating (U-Pb)
The uranium–lead dating method provides precise and accurate ages in geology because it measures the ratio of uranium isotopes (^238U and ^235U) to their lead decay products. This method is commonly used to date rocks and minerals and is particularly useful for determining ages in the range of millions to billions of years.
U-Series Dating
In the 1999 publication Australia’s Oldest Human Remains: Age of the Lake Mungo 3 Skeleton, Mungo Man (LM3) was dated using uranium-series methods, which produced ages ranging from about 81,000 to 21,000 years. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of the surrounding sediments yielded a similarly broad range of approximately 61,000 to 2,000 years.
U-series dating is not always accurate for human burial sites because bones can absorb uranium after burial, leading to unreliable results. For this reason, radiocarbon dating is generally considered more reliable than U-series dating for such contexts. However, experts also tested the age of Kiacatoo Man using U-series in 2011 from the Lachlan River on Wiradjuri Country, on behalf of the Wiradjuri people. It is interesting to note that U-series dating methods continue to be used. Kiacatoo Man was buried between approximately 29,400 and 27,000 years ago, based on combined U-series and OSL dating results.
Bibliography
Radiocarbon dating sources
Radiocarbon dating sources
- ANSTO, 2021a, Radiocarbon dating, Australian Government, URL: https://www.ansto.gov.au/our-facilities/centre-for-accelerator-science/radiocarbon-dating, last view on 9/1/2026.
- ANSTO, 2021b, Radiocarbon dating at ANSTO informs date of oldest known Aboriginal rock art, Australian Government, URL: https://www.ansto.gov.au/news/radiocarbon-dating-at-ansto-informs-date-of-oldest-known-aboriginal-rock-art, last view on 9/1/2026.
- The Bradshaw Foundation, 2021, New dating techniques reveal Australia’s oldest known rock painting, and it’s a kangaroo, Bradshaw Foundation, London UK, URL: https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/australia/new_dating_techniques_reveal_australias_oldest_known_rock_painting_and_its_a_kangaroo/index.php, last view on 9/1/2026.
- Clarkson, Chris, Jacobs, Zenobia, et al. 2017, Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago, Nature Journal, URL: https://www.nature.com/articles/nature22968, last view on 9/1/2026.
- Cosmos Education, 2025, EXPLAINER: What is radiometric dating?, URL: https://education.cosmosmagazine.com/explainer-what-is-radiometric-dating/, last view on 10/1/2026.
- Thorne, Alan, Grun, Rainer, 1999, Australia’s oldest human remains: age of the Lake Mungo 3 skeleton, Journal of Human Evolution, Article No. jhev.1999.0305, last view on 10/1/2026.
- Pietsch, Timothy, Kemp, Justin, and et al., 2011, A multi-method approach to dating the burial and skeleton of Kiacatoo Man, New South Wales, Australia, Australian Rivers Institute, Griffith University, Department of Archaeology and Natural History, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jqs.3165, last view on 10/1/2026.